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人种

人种

种族,又称做人种,是在体质形态上具有某些共同遗传特征的人群。“种族”这一概念以及种族的具体划分都是具有相当争议性的课题,其在不同的时代和不同的文化中都有差异,种族的概念也牵涉到诸如社会认同感以及民族主义等其他范畴。 20世纪以前,科学家普遍认为,人类分为若干个本质主义方式划分的(即以不可缺的特征来划分的)种族,如尼格罗人种蒙古人种高加索人种等。但自1940年代起,进化论科学家开始淘汰这种理论。长期以来,种族是以科学分类的角度所理解的,即将种族视为一个分类的层次,如将种族等同于亚种;但1960年代起,群体遗传学研究中新出现的数据以及模型也使一些科学家开始质疑这种理解,而转而以群体特征线等其他概念来研究人类内部的差别。1990年代以来,基因体学以及分支系统学研究中新出现的数据和模型也使科学界对人类起源有了新的认识,使一些科学家转而用世系而非特征来定义种族的划分,并且认为种族应该理解为模糊集合统计群体,或广义的家族。 有许多进化学以及社会学家认为,基于近年来的生物学研究结果,任何对于人类种族的定义,都缺乏科学分类的严谨性和正确性;“种族”的定义是不准确的,随意性的,约定俗成的,随文化视角的差异而变化,种族应该视为一种社会建构。但也有其他科学家认为,这个观点转变的动机,主要为政治原因而非科学。 目前,各个学科对于“种族”是什么,是否存在,到底有几个,应该如何定义,如何理解,如何分析等问题,尚无定论或共识。

“种族”概念的起源

社会建构以前收集的各地“土著群体”的肤色分布。]] 由于人类擅长识别他人外观,其群体关系又极其复杂,因此自史前时代以来,人类可能一直对“种族”的概念有一定的认知和理解,但各个文化对于“种族”的理解又不尽相同。最早记载种族的文学作品,为古埃及的《地狱之书》,其中将人类分为“埃及人”、“亚洲人”、“利比亚人”和“努比亚人”四类,可看出这个分类融合了“种族”、“民族”、“国家”等概念。后来的中国罗马等文化比较注重于氏族,对于以外观划分的“民族”的认知则较少(Dikötter 1992;Goldenberg 2003)。但希腊罗马中国等文化对外观不同的“种族”也有一定的认识,同时也导致其古代文献中(如中国的《山海经》)出现许多在遥远地方所存在的奇异种族的描写。同时也有一些罗马作家认为种族的特征是由居住环境决定的(Isaac 2004)。但在许多古代文明中,外表不同的人仍然可以通过采纳所在社会的文化标准而成为该社会完全的一员(Snowden 1983;Lewis 1990)。欧洲中世纪时期将古典时代的理论和《圣经》中的描写相结合,认为人类是挪亚三子以及雅弗的后代,其中闪族为亚洲人,含族为非洲人,雅弗族为欧洲人。 近现代对于种族的理解是欧洲地理大发现时代的产物(Smedley 1999)。欧洲人在探索世界的过程中,接触到了世界各地的许多民族,对于这些民族之间外表上的、行为上的、以及文化上的差异产生了许多猜想。同时由于非洲奴隶贸易使欧洲人的奴隶来源渐渐地由欧洲、中东转变成非洲,欧洲也因此产生了将人类分类的动力,以作为奴役并虐待非洲人的理由(Meltzer 1993)。 通过借鉴希腊罗马的文献以及当时欧洲内部的关系(如英格兰人与爱尔兰人之间的不和 -- Takaki 1993),欧洲人开始将自己以及其他民族划分为外表、行为、能力皆有分别的群体,并把可以遗传的外表特征和内在的智力、行为、甚至道德水平互相联系(Banton 1977)。虽然其他文化也有相似的观点(Lewis 1990;Dikötter 1992),但是这种观点开始影响社会的构造,主要是在欧洲及其殖民地开始的。

传统的种族划分

对种族划分的最早的科学性尝试发生于17世纪,那正值欧洲帝国主义和殖民主义蓬勃发展的时期。最早出版的脱离罗马希腊传统的人类划分法是François Bernier所著的 Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent (《基于地球上居住的不同的物种或种族的新的地球划分法》),于1684年出版。 Bernier共区分4个种族:
- 欧洲人,包括南亚人,但不包括拉普族
- 远东人和美洲原住民
- 撒哈拉以南非洲
- 拉普族 18世纪时,人类群体之间的区别成为科学研究的重点(Todorov 1993)。早期的学者注重于总结及描述“人类的自然类别”,这即是Johann Friedrich Blumenbach1775年出版的人类五分法的文章的标题。但随着19世纪人类学的形成,欧美学者开始试图解释各个群体在行为上和文化上的不同特征(Stanton 1960)。他们开始测量骨的大小及形状,试图解释智力或者其他方面的不同特征(Lieberman 2001)。与达尔文1859年出版《物种起源》同时,欧洲人对于不同种族到底起源相同,还是各自进化,或各自被上帝创造,展开了激烈的争论(Wolpoff and Caspari 1997)。 17世纪19世纪期间,民间对于民族之间的区别的普遍认知,和科学家对于这些区别的解释结合在一起,形成了后来一名学者所说的“种族的意识形态”(Smedley 1999)。这种意识形态的基本要旨是:种族是远古的,自然的,一成不变的,各不相同的。虽然一些群体是多个群体的混合体,但是通过调查和研究,仍然可以辨别形成该混合群体的祖先民族。 19世纪时,有多位自然科学家在种族的问题上发表了自己的观点,如Georges CuvierJames Cowles PritchardLouis AgassizCharles PickeringJohann Friedrich Blumenbach。其中Cuvier将人类三分,Pritchard七分,Agassiz八分,Pickering十一分。Blumenbach的五分法则是19世纪时比较常见的:
- 高加索人种,即白色人种,主要分布在欧洲西亚等地
- 蒙古人种,即黄色人种,主要分布在中亚东亚等地
- 埃塞俄比亚人种,即黑色人种,主要分布在非洲大洋洲等地
- 美洲人种,即红色人种,主要分布在美洲
- 马来人种,即棕色人种,主要分布在东南亚(注意:和20世纪的棕色人种不同) 在Blumenbach之后的几十年里,研究人员渐渐将美洲、马来两个人种归并于蒙古人种,结果进入20世纪初剩下三个主要的人种:
- 尼格罗人种,即黑色人种
- 高加索人种,即白色人种
- 蒙古人种,即黄色人种 20世纪最常见的分法是由美国人类学家Carleton S. Coon提出的:
- 刚果人种,即黑色人种
- 高加索人种,即白色人种
- 蒙古人种,即黄色人种
- 澳大利亚人种,即棕色人种
- 开普人种(居于非洲南部,因在特征上和传统的“黑色人种”有别,而分列出来)

传统种族和其他人类现象之间的联系

19世纪的自然科学家对于种族的认识可以归纳为三点:一、种族是客观存在的,自然发生的人类分类;二、种族和其他人类现象(如行为、文化、智力、道德水平)等有很深的联系,因此也造成了不同文化之间物质文明丰富与否的区别;三、种族因此是一个有效的科学分类,可以用来解释以及预测个人或群体的行为。 人种以肤色眼色眼型髮色髮質鼻型嘴唇的厚薄、头型脸型等特征划分,而这些生理特征却和其他文化特征,甚至智力、道德水平联系了起来。如:当时认为,高加索人种的浅肤色和高眉骨显示了高加索人种高深的智力水平以及仁厚的心灵;蒙古人种的浅黄肤色和内眦赘皮显示了其狡猾,并且有些死板教条的性格;尼格罗人种的深肤色、低眉骨、厚嘴唇则显示他们比较接近于猿类动物。(但值得一提的是:大猩猩黑猩猩的皮肤其实非常白,嘴唇也很细。) 进入20世纪以后,这种种族主义的观念,乃至“种族”的概念本身,都已经开始面临越来越多的挑战。

20世纪、21世纪时围绕“种族”概念展开的争论

种族研究的范围

由于对于种族的研究在至少两个范围(国家范围以及国际范围)进行,同时各种研究的目的也不同,因此对于种族的讨论也非常复杂。一般来说,进化论科学家将人类作为一个整体对待,他们对全球人类多样性的研究过程中,有层次的科学分类帮助有限,或者根本不适用。但是在国家层面运作的政府、执法人员、医药事业等则比较注重于在国家或者地区内所出现的基因多样性,对他们来说,有层次的科学分类的确颇有实用价值。 研究范围和目的的不同,从近年来发表的三篇研究论文中就可以看出:Rosenberg等(2002年)、Serre & Pääbo2004年)、以及Tang等(2005年)。Rosenberg等以及Serre & Pääbo所研究的都是全球人类基因的多样性,但是他们的结论却完全不同,Serre & Pääbo将此不同归于实验设计。Rosenberg等从全球各地取样,他们没有把地理因素考虑在内,而Serre & Pääbo则是根据地理而取样。通过从各洲主要群体取样,Rosenberg等认为有证据表明统计群体的存在(即种族)。但Serre & Pääbo认为,从地理的角度来考虑,人类基因多样性是渐变式的,特征线式的。Rosenberg等的研究方向是医学(即流行病学),而Serre & Pääbo的则是人类进化。Tang等研究的是美国国内的基因多样性,主要方向是研究种族和地理位置之间哪一个对于流行病学研究影响更深。与Serre & Pääbo不同,Tang等认为种族更为重要。[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v77n3/42406/brief/42406.abstract.html 最近的研究]也将种族和[http://pritch.bsd.uchicago.edu/software/structure2_1.html 群体基因结构]相联系,和Tang等同出一辙。但国际范围和国内范围的研究为何会得出的不同结论,Serre & Pääbo所推测的原因是: :It is worth noting that the colonization history of the United States has resulted in a "sampling" of the human population made up largely of people from western Europe, western Africa, and Southeast Asia. Thus, studies in which individuals from Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia are used... might be an adequate description of the major components of the U.S. population. :(我们应该注意到,美国殖民史导致了全球人类的“抽样”,使得美国人口主要来自西欧西非、以及东南亚。因此,以欧洲、撒哈拉以南的非洲、以及东南亚为对象的研究……可能足够描述美国人口的主要组成部分。)

“种族”和亚种

随着20世纪初现代综合论的兴起,生物学家发展出了新的,更严谨的,将种族等同于亚种的定义。对于这些生物学家来说,种族是一个中,组成其全部或一部分的,可辨认的群体。一个“单型”的种就没有种族(或者可以说是只有一个种族包含了整个种)。以下情况的种都可视为单型种:
- 该种所有成员都非常相似,没有有意义的方法将其分类。
- 该种的成员有相当的多样性,但是有很高的随机性,从遗传角度来讲毫无意义。(许多植物物种就属于此类,因此许多园艺学家假如要保留某种特征(如花瓣颜色)的话,会避免利用种子繁殖,而会使用插枝等不改变原有基因的途径。)
- 该种的成员有相当的多样性,且多样性有一定的规律可循,但是各个群体之间没有明确的界限,而是渐变式地互相融合。这种特征线式的多样性,一般上表示各个看似分开的群体之间其实存在相当的基因流。假如一个物种的各群体之间有相当的基因流,该物种很有可能仍然是单型种。 一个多型种就是有两个或以上种族的物种。这种物种通常有多个明显的亚种,一般上不会杂交(但可能有较窄的杂交区域),但在有机会的情况下会进行杂交。(但注意:假如两个群体在有机会的情况下仍然不可杂交的话,那么这两个群体就属于两个不同的,而非一种之内的两个种族。) 虽然这个以概念精确性为目的的尝试得到了许多生物学家的支持(尤其是动物学家),但是进化论科学家却从多个方面对其进行批评。

“种族”概念的摒弃以及“群体”和“特征线”概念的兴起

20世纪初,人类学家对于种族是有截然分别的语言、文化、社会群体的理论开始质疑,摒弃。之后,群体遗传学的兴起使一些在人类学生物学等学科的主流进化论科学家开始质疑种族作为一个客观存在的科学概念的正确性。那些摒弃种族概念的正确性的科学家主要从四个角度分析:实证、定义、其他理论、道德伦理。(Lieberman and Byrne 1993) 首先从实证角度挑战种族概念的是两位人类学家:Franz Boas展示了环境因素造成的表现型的可塑性(Boas 1912),Ashley Montagu则依靠基因学证据。(1941, 1942)动物学家Edward O. Wilson和W. Brown则从一般动物系统学的角度挑战该概念,同时否认了“种族”等同于“亚种”的理论。(Wilson and Brown 1953) 特征线概念的提出,是对人类表现型基因型重新理解过程中最重要的发展之一。该概念源自人类学C. Loring Brace所描述的现象:自然选择迁徙以及基因漂变在塑造人类基因多样性的同时,其多样性主要呈渐变分布,而这些渐变中出现的“等高曲线”可称为特征线。(Brace 1964)这个现象突显出了以表现型(如肤色、髮質)来描述的种族忽略了许多其他的,和种族划分重合较少的特征(如血型)。因此,人类学家Frank Livingstone得出的结论是:因为特征线和种族界限互相交叉,因此根本没有所谓的“种族”,只有特征线。(Livingstone 1962: 279)1964年,生物学家Paul Ehrlich及Holm指出了一些两个或以上条特征线以不协调地分布的特例:如黑色素的分布取决于离赤道的距离,越远就越少;但是beta-S血色素单基因型却是以位于非洲的特定的地理位置为中心,呈放射性分布。(Ehrlich and Holm 1964)以人类学家Leonard LiebermanFatimah Linda Jackson的原话来说: :Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous" (Lieverman and Jackson 1995). :([人类基因]异质性的不协调分布,也反证了任何把[人类的]群体描述成在基因型或甚至表现型方面同质性[的描述]。) 最后,基因学家Richard Lewontin鉴于人类多样性的85%皆出现于群体内而非群体之间的现象,提出论点,认为“种族”和“亚种”都不是正确的或有用的描述人类群体的方法。(Lewontin 1973)(该论点后来被其反对者称为Lewontin的谬误。)有研究人员报告说,(以Sewall Wright之群体结构统计FST来测量的)种族之间的区别仅有人类基因多样性的5%。2但由于FST的技术局限性,许多基因学家认为很低的FST值并不反证人类种族存在的理论。(Edwards, 2003)同时,还有如David Harvey(1982, 1984, 1992)的新马克思主义者认为,种族是一个用来巩固阶级之间不平等的社会构造的手段,实际上并不存在。 这些从实证角度提出的对“种族”概念的挑战,迫使进化科学重新考虑“种族”的定义。20世纪中叶,人类学家William Boyd将种族定义为: :A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses. It is an arbitrary matter which, and how many, gene loci we choose to consider as a significant "constellation" (Boyd 1950). :(一个在其拥有的一个或多的基因的频率上,和其他群体有显著差别的群体。我们选择哪些基因位点,选择多少个,作为显著的“星座”,是完全随意性的。) Lieberman和Jackson(1994)指出:这个论点的弱点在于:假如一个基因就能区别种族,那么种族的数量就和进行交配的人类配偶数量一样多。同时,人类学家Stephen Molnar提出,特征线的不协调性不可避免地导致种族数量的大幅增加,最终使这个概念失去意义(Molnar 1992)。 在种种实证方面和概念方面的问题出现的同时,第二次世界大战之后,进化科学家和社会科学家很清楚地认识到,和种族有关的理念被屡次用来给种族歧视种族隔离奴隶制以及种族清洗提供理由。1960年代期间美国民权运动以及世界各地反殖民主义运动兴起期间,这个从伦理道德角度提出的质疑也日益激烈。 在这些论点的轮番攻击下,一些进化科学家完全摒弃了“种族”概念,转而使用“群体”。群体和种族的不同在于,群体所指的是一个繁殖群体(在进行遗传算法时必不可少的概念),而不是一个生物学上的分类。其他的进化科学家则采用了特征线的概念(即某个特征的频率相对于地理的变化速度)。“群体”和“特征线”的概念并不矛盾,许多进化科学家两者并用。 进化科学家摒弃“种族”概念的同时,许多社会科学家则把“种族”改换成“民族”,其中民族是指在国籍、宗教、种族等方面自我认同的群体。这些科学家完全承认,这些国籍、宗教、种族等方面的自我认同全部都是社会构造,和自然或超自然领域的客观事实可以完全无关。(Gordon 1964)(另见:美国人类学协会在种族问题上的声明[http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm])

人类基因多样性的起源、模式以及外在体现

人类的起源

社会构造 任何人类种族的模型都必须能解释人类进化过程中种族差异的形成。但在20世纪末以前,人类学家只能依靠相当不完整的化石记录来推断人类进化的过程。而他们的模型也无法作为我们就种族起源问题提出推论的有效基础。然而,近年来分子生物学领域的发展已经开始给进化学家提供更新、更全面的数据,也充实了我们对于人类起源的认识。 人类学家对于智(homo sapiens;现代人)的起源,一向争论不休。大约一百万年前,直立人(Homo erectus)从非洲迁徙到欧洲和亚洲。而争论的中心就是:直立人是否是在非、欧、亚三洲各自同时进化为智人,还是智人在非洲进化之后,离开非洲并取代了欧亚二洲的直立人。两种模型的不同,也导致了各自对种族起源问题的解释上的不同。

多地起源说

支持多地起源说的学者(见Frayer et al. 1993)指出了中南欧洲(Smith 1982)以及东亚、澳洲(Wolpoff 1993)等地化学纪录中的解剖延续性,认为解剖延续性证明了基因亲和性。他们认为,人类内部显著的基因相似性并不表示他们有共同的祖先,二是反映了世界各地人类群体之间,互相联系所造成的不间断的基因流。(Thorne and Wolpoff 1992)他们同时认为这个模型和特征线的理论并不矛盾。(Wolpoff 1993) 这个模型在种族问题上最重要的元素就是:既然智人在世界各地已经进化繁衍了一百万年,这个物种完全有时间进化成多个种族。然而,Leiberman and Jackson(1995年)却指出,这个模型取决于以下和种族有关的条件是否成立:一、人属(Homo)在其分布地中心和边缘地的成员之间须在更新世中期就有显著的构成学区别; 二、许多特征须先在人属的分布地域的边缘处发展;三、这些特征随时间推移并不消失。这种地域性的多样化即可成为人属内部长期以来即存在差别,以及这些差别是现今人类内部差别的前身的证据。

非洲起源说

构成学推断出的早期人类迁徙路线。(图例中的数目表示距今年代,单位为千年)]] Information about the history of our species comes from two main sources: the paleoanthropological record and historical inferences based on current genetic differences observed in humans. Although both sources of information are fragmentary, they have been converging in recent years on the same general story. Since the 1990s, it has become common to use multilocus genotypes to distinguish different human groups and to allocate individuals to groups (Bamshad et al. 2004). These data have led to an examination of the biological validity of races as evolutionary lineages and the description of races in cladistic terms. The technique of multilocus genotyping has been used to determine patterns of human demographic history. Thus, the concept of "race" afforded by these techniques is synonymous with ancestry, broadly understood. Studies of human genetic variation imply that Africa was the ancestral source of all modern humans, and that Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa and displaced Homo erectus between 140,000 and 290,000 years ago (Cann et al. 1987). Indigenous Australians are believed to be an early out-group that remained isolated. Most other groups, including Europeans, Asians, and Native Americans, were found to be a single related (monophyletic) group resulting from a later out-migration from Africa, which could reasonably be divided into West and East Eurasian groups. The existing fossil evidence suggests that anatomically modern humans evolved in Africa, within the last ∼200,000 years, from a pre-existing population of humans (Klein 1999). Although it is not easy to define "anatomically modern" in a way that encompasses all living humans and excludes all archaic humans (Lieberman et al. 2002), the generally agreed-upon physical characteristics of anatomical modernity include a high rounded skull, facial retraction, and a light and gracile, as opposed to heavy and robust, skeleton (Lahr 1996). Early fossils with these characteristics have been found in eastern Africa and have been dated to ∼160,000–200,000 years ago (White et al. 2003; McDougall et al. 2005). At that time, the population of anatomically modern humans appears to have been small and localized (Harpending et al. 1998). Much larger populations of archaic humans lived elsewhere in the Old World, including the Neandertals in Europe and an earlier species of humans, Homo erectus, in Asia (Swisher et al. 1994). Fossils of the earliest anatomically modern humans found outside Africa are from two sites in the Middle East and date to a period of relative global warmth, ∼100,000 years ago, though this region was reinhabited by Neandertals in later millennia as the climate in the northern hemisphere again cooled (Lahr and Foley 1998). Groups of anatomically modern humans appear to have moved outside Africa permanently sometime >60,000 years ago. One of the earliest modern skeletons found outside Africa is Mungo Man, from Australia, and has been dated to ∼42,000 years ago (Bowler et al. 2003), although studies of environmental changes in Australia argue for the presence of modern humans in Australia >55,000 years ago (Miller et al. 1999). To date, the earliest anatomically modern skeleton discovered from Europe comes from the Carpathian Mountains of Romania and is dated to 34,000–36,000 years ago (Trinkaus et al. 2003). Existing data on human genetic variation support and extend conclusions based on the fossil evidence. African populations exhibit greater genetic diversity than do populations in the rest of the world, implying that humans appeared first in Africa and later colonized Eurasia and the Americas (Tishkoff and Williams 2002; Yu et al. 2002; Tishkoff and Verrelli 2003). The genetic variation seen outside Africa is generally a subset of the variation within Africa, a pattern that would be produced if the migrants from Africa were limited in number and carried just part of African genetic variability with them (Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman 2003). Patterns of genetic variation suggest an earlier population expansion in Africa followed by a subsequent expansion in non-African populations, and the dates calculated for the expansions generally coincide with the archaeological record (Jorde et al. 1998). Aspects of the relationship between anatomically modern and archaic humans remain contentious. Studies of mtDNA (Ingman et al. 2000), the Y chromosome (Underhill et al. 2000), portions of the X chromosome (Kaessmann et al. 1999), and many (though not all) autosomal regions (Harpending and Rogers 2000) support the "Out of Africa" account of human history, in which anatomically modern humans appeared first in eastern Africa and then migrated throughout Africa and into the rest of the world, with little or no interbreeding between modern humans and the archaic populations they gradually replaced (Tishkoff et al. 2000; Stringer 2002). However, several groups of researchers cite fossil and genetic evidence to argue for a more complex account. They contend that humans bearing modern traits emerged several times from Africa, over an extended period, and mixed with archaic humans in various parts of the world (Hawks et al. 2000; Eswaran 2002; Templeton 2002; Ziętkiewicz et al. 2003). As a result, they say, autosomal DNA from archaic human populations living outside Africa persists in modern populations, and modern populations in various parts of the world still bear some physical resemblance to the archaic populations that inhabited those regions (Wolpoff et al. 2001). However, distinguishing possible contributions to the gene pool of modern humans from archaic humans outside Africa is difficult, especially since many autosomal loci coalesce at times preceding the separation of archaic human populations (Pääbo 2003). In addition, studies of mtDNA from archaic and modern humans and extant Y chromosomes suggest that any surviving genetic contributions of archaic humans outside Africa must be small, if they exist at all (Krings et al. 1997; Nordborg 1998; Takahata et al. 2001; Serre et al. 2004). The observation that most genes studied to date coalesce in African populations points toward the importance of Africa as the source of most modern genetic variation, perhaps with some subdivision in the ancestral African population (Satta and Takahata 2002). Sequence data for hundreds of loci from widely distributed worldwide populations eventually may clarify the population processes associated with the appearance of anatomically modern humans (Wall 2000), as well as the amount of gene flow among modern humans since then.

分支系统学

Mungo Man A phylogenetic tree like the one shown above is usually derived from DNA or protein sequences from populations. Often mitochondrial DNA or Y chromosome sequences are used to study ancient human demographics. These single-locus sources of DNA do not recombine and are inherited from a single parent. Individuals from the various continental groups tend to be more similar to one another than to people from other continents. The tree is rooted in the common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans, which is believed to have originated in Africa. Horizontal distance corresponds to two things: #Genetic distance. Given below the diagram, the genetic difference between humans and chimps is roughly 2%, or 20 times larger than the variation among modern humans. #Temporal remoteness of the most recent common ancestor. Rough estimates are given above the diagram, in millions of years. The mitochondrial most recent common ancestor of modern humans lived roughly 200,000 years ago, latest common ancestors of humans and chimps between four and seven million years ago. Chimpanzees and humans belong to different genera, indicated in red. Formation of species and subspecies is also indicated, and the formation of "races" is indicated in the green rectangle to the right (note that only a very rough representation of human phylogeny is given). Note that vertical distances are not meaningful in this representation.

不同特征的分布

A thorough description of the differences in patterns of genetic variation between humans and other species awaits additional genetic studies of human populations and nonhuman species. But the data gathered to date suggest that human variation exhibits several distinctive characteristics. First, compared with many other mammalian species, humans are genetically less diverse—a counterintuitive finding, given our large population and worldwide distribution (Li and Sadler 1991; Kaessmann et al. 2001). For example, the chimpanzee subspecies living just in central and western Africa have higher levels of diversity than do humans (Ebersberger et al. 2002; Yu et al. 2003; Fischer et al. 2004). Two random humans are expected to differ at approximately 1 in 1000 nucleotide pairs, whereas two random chimpanzees differ at 1 in 500 nucleotide pairs. However, with a genome of approximate 3 billion nucleotides, on average two humans differ at approximately 3 million nucleotides. Most of these single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are neutral, but some are functional and influence the phenotypic differences between humans. It is estimated that about 10 million SNPs exist in human populations, where the rarer SNP allele has a frequency of at least 1% (see International HapMap Project). The distribution of variants within and among human populations also differs from that of many other species. The details of this distribution are impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a "population," the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and Kittles 2003). In general, however, 5%–15% of genetic variation occurs between large groups living on different continents, with the remaining majority of the variation occurring within such groups (Lewontin 1972; Jorde et al. 2000a; Hinds et al. 2005). This distribution of genetic variation differs from the pattern seen in many other mammalian species, for which existing data suggest greater differentiation between groups (Templeton 1998; Kittles and Weiss 2003). In the field of population genetics, it is believed that the distribution of neutral polymorphisms among contemporary humans reflects human demographic history. Our history as a species also has left genetic signals in regional populations. For example, in addition to having higher levels of genetic diversity, populations in Africa tend to have lower amounts of linkage disequilibrium than do populations outside Africa, partly because of the larger size of human populations in Africa over the course of human history and partly because the number of modern humans who left Africa to colonize the rest of the world appears to have been relatively low (Gabriel et al. 2002). In contrast, populations that have undergone dramatic size reductions or rapid expansions in the past and populations formed by the mixture of previously separate ancestral groups can have unusually high levels of linkage disequilibrium (Nordborg and Tavare 2002). In the field of population genetics, it is believed that the distribution of neutral polymorphisms among contemporary humans reflects human demographic history. It is believed that humans passed through a population bottleneck before a rapid expansion coinciding with migrations out of Africa leading to an African-Eurasian divergence around 100,000 years ago (ca. 5,000 generations), followed by a European-Asian divergence about 40,000 years ago (ca. 2,000 generations). The rapid expansion of a previously small population has two important effects on the distribution of genetic variation. First, the so-called founder effect occurs when founder populations bring only a subset of the genetic variation from their ancestral population. Second, as founders become more geographically separated, the probability that two individuals from different founder populations will mate becomes smaller. The effect of this assortative mating is to reduce gene flow between geographical groups, and to increase the genetic distance between groups. The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater genetic drift because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted. Many other geographic, climatic, and historical factors have contributed to the patterns of human genetic variation seen in the world today. For example, population processes associated with colonization, periods of geographic isolation, socially reinforced endogamy, and natural selection all have affected allele frequencies in certain populations (Jorde et al. 2000b; Bamshad and Wooding 2003). In general, however, the recency of our common ancestry and continual gene flow among human groups have limited genetic differentiation in our species.

人类群体的亚结构

genetic drift New data on human genetic variation has reignited the debate surrounding race. Most of the controversy surrounds the question of how to interpret these new data, and whether conclusions based on existing data are sound (see validity of human races). A large majority of researchers endorse the view that continental groups do not constitute different subspecies. However, other researchers still debate whether evolutionary lineages should rightly be called "races". These questions are particularly pressing for biomedicine, where self-described race is often used as an indicator of ancestry (see race in biomedicine below). Although the genetic differences among human groups are relatively small, these differences nevertheless can be used to situate many individuals within broad, geographically based groupings. For example, computer analyses of hundreds of polymorphic loci sampled in globally distributed populations have revealed the existence of genetic clustering that roughly is associated with groups that historically have occupied large continental and subcontinental regions (Rosenberg et al. 2002; Bamshad et al. 2003). Some commentators have argued that these patterns of variation provide a biological justification for the use of traditional racial categories. They argue that the continental clusterings correspond roughly with the division of human beings into sub-Saharan Africans; Europeans, western Asians, and northern Africans; eastern Asians; Polynesians and other inhabitants of Oceania; and Native Americans (Risch et al. 2002). Other observers disagree, saying that the same data undercut traditional notions of racial groups (King and Motulsky 2002; Calafell 2003; Tishkoff and Kidd 2004). They point out, for example, that major populations considered races or subgroups within races do not necessarily form their own clusters. Thus, samples taken from India and Pakistan affiliate with Europeans or eastern Asians rather than separating into a distinct cluster. However, samples from the Kalash, a small population living in northwestern Pakistan, form their own cluster on a level comparable with those of the major continental regions (Rosenberg et al. 2002). Sampling design can have a critical influence on the results of such studies. Studies of genetic clustering often have relied on samples taken from widely separated and socially defined populations. When samples were analyzed from individuals who were more evenly distributed geographically, clustering was far less evident (Serre and Pääbo 2004). Furthermore, because human genetic variation is clinal, many individuals affiliate with two or more continental groups. Thus, the genetically based "biogeographical ancestry" assigned to any given person generally will be broadly distributed and will be accompanied by sizable uncertainties (Pfaff et al. 2004). In many parts of the world, groups have mixed in such a way that many individuals have relatively recent ancestors from widely separated regions. Although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person's ancestors coming from various continental populations (Shriver et al. 2003; Bamshad et al. 2004), these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994; Hoerder 2002). Even with large numbers of markers, information for estimating admixture proportions of individuals or groups is limited, and estimates typically will have wide CIs (Pfaff et al. 2004).

人类内部的生理多样性

The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (American Association of Physical Anthropologists 1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ∼90% of the variation in human head shapes occurs within every human group, and ∼10% separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002). A prominent exception to the common distribution of physical characteristics within and among groups is skin color. Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within groups, and ~90% occurs between groups (Relethford 2002). This distribution of skin color and its geographic patterning—with people whose ancestors lived predominantly near the equator having darker skin than those with ancestors who lived predominantly in higher latitudes—indicate that this attribute has been under strong selective pressure. Darker skin appears to be strongly selected for in equatorial regions to prevent sunburn, skin cancer, the photolysis of folate, and damage to sweat glands (Sturm et al. 2001; Rees 2003). A leading hypothesis for the selection of lighter skin in higher latitudes is that it enables the body to form greater amounts of vitamin D, which helps prevent rickets (Jablonski 2004). However, the vitamin D hypothesis is not universally accepted (Aoki 2002), and lighter skin in high latitudes may correspond simply to an absence of selection for dark skin (Harding et al. 2000). Because skin color has been under strong selective pressure, similar skin colors can result from convergent adaptation rather than from genetic relatedness. Sub-Saharan Africans, tribal populations from southern India, and Indigenous Australians have similar skin pigmentation, but genetically they are no more similar than are other widely separated groups. Furthermore, in some parts of the world in which people from different regions have mixed extensively, the connection between skin color and ancestry has been substantially weakened (Parra et al. 2004). In Brazil, for example, skin color is not closely associated with the percentage of recent African ancestors a person has, as estimated from an analysis of genetic variants differing in frequency among continent groups (Parra et al. 2003). Considerable speculation has surrounded the possible adaptive value of other physical features characteristic of groups, such as the constellation of facial features observed in many eastern and northeastern Asians (Guthrie 1996). However, any given physical characteristic generally is found in multiple groups (Lahr 1996), and demonstrating that environmental selective pressures shaped specific physical features will be difficult, since such features may have resulted from sexual selection for individuals with certain appearances or from genetic drift (Roseman 2004).

社会对人类生理多样性的理解

人种划分中出现的各种难点

Even as the idea of "race" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent. In the Old World, the gradual transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups emphasized that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them," as Blumenbach observed in his writings on human variation (Marks 1995, p. 54). In parts of the Americas, the situation was somewhat different. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World—western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia and southern Europe. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors—in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of Jamaicans to ∼23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans (Parra et al. 1998). Similarly, many people who identify as European American have some African or Native American ancestors, either through openly interracial marriages or through the gradual inclusion of people with mixed ancestry into the majority population. In a survey of college students who self-identified as "white" in a northeastern U.S. university, ∼30% were estimated to have <90% European ancestry (Shriver et al. 2003). In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time that forced individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997). An example is the "one-drop rule" implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African American ancestor as black (Davis 2001). The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those categories (Nobles 2000). In other countries in the Americas where mixing among groups was more extensive, social categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid, with people moving into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry, and appearance (Mörner 1967). Efforts to sort the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete categories generated many difficulties (Spickard 1992). By the standards used in past censuses, many millions of children born in the United States have belonged to a different race than have one of their biological parents. Efforts to track mixing between groups led to a proliferation of categories (such as "mulatto" and "octoroon") and "blood quantum" distinctions that became increasingly untethered from self-reported ancestry. A person's racial identity can change over time, and self-ascribed race can differ from assigned race (Kressin et al. 2003). Until the 2000 census, Latinos were required to identify with a single race despite the long history of mixing in Latin America; partly as a result of the confusion generated by the distinction, 42% of Latino respondents in the 2000 census ignored the specified racial categories and checked "some other race" (Mays et al. 2003).

以“族群”而非“种族”区分人群

As the problems surrounding the word "race" became increasingly apparent during the 20th century, the word "ethnicity" was promoted as a way of characterizing the differences between groups (Huxley and Haddon 1936; Hutchinson and Smith 1996). Ethnicity typically emphasizes the cultural, socioeconomic, religious, and political qualities of human groups rather than their genetic ancestry. It may encompass language, diet, religion, dress, customs, kinship systems, or historical or territorial identity (Cornell and Hartmann 1998). However, as a way of understanding human groups, ethnicity also suffers from several shortcomings. First, ascribing an ethnic identity to a group can imply a much greater degree of uniformity than is actually the case. In the United States, the ethnic group "Hispanic or Latino" contains such subgroups as Cuban Americans, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and recent immigrants from Central America (Hayes-Bautista and Chapa 1987). Combining these groups into a single category may serve useful bureaucratic or political ends but does not necessarily result in a better understanding of these groups. Also, ethnicity, like race, is a malleable concept that can change dramatically in different times or circumstances (Waters 1990; Smelser et al. 2001). Ethnic groups may come into existence and then dissipate as a result of broad historical or social trends. Individuals might change ethnic groups over the course of their lives or identify with more than one group. A researcher, clinician, or government official might assign an ethnicity to an individual quite different from the one that person would acknowledge (Kressin et al. 2003). Finally, despite attempts to distinguish "ethnicity" from "race," the two terms often are used interchangeably (Oppenheimer 2001). Ethnic groups can share a belief in a common ancestral origin (Cornell and Hartmann 1998), which also can be a defining characteristic of a racial group. Furthermore, ethnic groups tend to promote marriage within the group, which creates an expectation of biological cohesion regardless of whether that cohesion existed in the past.

以祖籍区分人群

An alternative to the use of racial or ethnic categories is to categorize individuals in terms of ancestry. Ancestry may be defined geographically (e.g., Asian, sub-Saharan African, or northern European), geopolitically (e.g., Vietnamese, Zambian, or Norwegian), or culturally (e.g., Brahmin, Lemba, or Apache). The definition of ancestry may recognize a single predominant source or multiple sources. Ancestry can be ascribed to an individual by an observer, as was the case with the U.S. census prior to 1960; it can be identified by an individual from a list of possibilities or with use of terms drawn from that person's experience; or it can be calculated from genetic data by use of loci with allele frequencies that differ geographically, as described above. At least among those individuals who participate in biomedical research, genetic estimates of biogeographical ancestry generally agree with self-assessed ancestry (Tang et al. 2005), but in an unknown percentage of cases, they do not (Brodwin 2002; Kaplan 2003). race in biomedicine Genetic data can be used to infer population structure and assign individuals to groups that often correspond with their self-identified geographical ancestry. The inference of population structure from multilocus genotyping depends on the selection of a large number of informative genetic markers. These studies usually find that groups of humans living on the same continent are more similar to one another than to groups living on different continents. Many such studies are criticized for assigning group identity a priori. However, even if group identity is stripped and group identity assigned a posteriori using only genetic data, population structure can still be inferred. For example, using 377 markers, Rosenberg et al. (2002) were able to assign 1,056 individuals from 52 populations around the globe to one of six genetic clusters, of which five correspond to major geographic regions. However, in analyses that assign individuals to group it becomes less apparent that self-described racial groups are reliable indicators of ancestry. One cause of the reduced power of the assignment of individuals to groups is admixture. Some racial or ethnic groups, especially Hispanic groups, do not have homogenous ancestry. For example, self-described African Americans tend to have a mix of West African and European ancestry. Shriver et al. (2003) found that on average African Americans have ~80% Afric

本质主义

本质主义(Essentialism),作为与社会建构主义相对应的理论,强调性欲极其性别是先天的生理和心理条件造成的,一种不以社会条件和历史环境所改变的人性本质之一,同性恋是具有某种心理和行为特征的客观族群,而非社会所谴责的道德堕落者。本质主义理论的兴起开始于19世纪中期,特别是自卡尔·亨利希·乌尔利克斯(Karl Heinrich Ulrichs)创造Urning(男同性恋)这个字以后。 乌尔利克斯是想用Urning这个字来反对意指不道德的鸡奸者(pederast)这个字的,他认为如果同性恋是天生的,那么他们这种天生的行为就不应该是不道德或者有罪的。后来的一些学者同意乌尔利克斯的主张,但他们认为这些人天生就是有病的。 本质主义因为西格蒙德·弗洛伊德(Sigmund Freud)而在20世纪成为主流思想。弗洛伊德认为同性恋是在婴儿早期形成的。英国性学家蔼理士在他的《性心理学》一书中也认为,同性恋与生俱来,并且是人类亘古以来的性爱表达之一。 社会建构论者却认为,同性恋的成因是社会和文化建构的结果,是社会和文化的左右,从而有了同性恋异性恋,男人和女人的区别。本质主义论者对建构主义的反驳,最典型的是“基因决定我是同性恋”(“I am homosexual because of my genes” 或者“I am homosexual because of my brain”) 本质主义和社会建构主义应用范围很宽,比如教育学上也有教育本质论,这里所谈到的两个主义,是在生理和精神研究领域里使用的。 category:主义

蒙古人种

黄色人种,俗称“黄种人”,又称蒙古人种或亚美人种,是世界第二大人种人数仅次于白色人种

分布

“黄种人”主要分布于亚洲东部和东南部以及美洲,包括有东亚中国人日本人朝鲜人越南人东南亚国家的大部分人口,西伯利亚楚克奇人通古斯人美洲爱斯基摩人印第安人等。俄罗斯联邦境内西南部地区(里海与黑海之间)卡尔梅克共和国的居民也属于“黄种人”,俄罗斯联邦东西伯利亚地区(与蒙古国接壤)的布利亚特共和国也是属于蒙古部落之一。

体态特征

黄色人种肤色黄,头发粗直并且黑色,眼睛是黑色或深褐色的,面部宽阔,颧骨突出平扁,鼻梁低,胡子和体毛较少,身材为中等高度。 Category:种族 ja:モンゴロイド

高加索人种

白色人种,俗称“白种人”,又称欧罗巴人种或高加索人种,是主要分布在欧洲北非西亚印度北部的一个人种16世纪以后扩散到美洲大洋洲。 白色人种肤色较白或是浅褐色,发色和眼色都较浅,鼻梁高而窄,胡子和体毛发达。 Category:种族 ja:コーカソイド

1940年代

世纪: 19世纪 - 20世纪 - 21世纪 年代: 1890年代 1900年代 1910年代 1920年代 1930年代 - 1940年代 - 1950年代 1960年代 1970年代 1980年代 1990年代 历年: 1940年 1941年 1942年 1943年 1944年 1945年 1946年 1947年 1948年 1949年 ---- Category:20世纪 ja:1940年代 ko:1940년대 simple:1940s



亚种

亚种(subspecies):较种小的单位,但能与明确的种以小而不重要的形态特征相区别,并且这一特征具有较强的遗传性,同时具有地理分布上或生态上的不同。 category:生物學

1960年代

世纪: 19世纪 - 20世纪 - 21世纪 年代: 1910年代 1920年代 1930年代 1940年代 1950年代 - 1960年代 - 1970年代 1980年代 1990年代 2000年代 2010年代 历年: 1960年 1961年 1962年 1963年 1964年 1965年 1966年 1967年 1968年 1969年 ---- Category:20世纪 ja:1960年代 ko:1960년대 simple:1960s

群体遗传学

群体遗传学是研究在四种进化动力的影响下,等位基因的分布和改变。这四种进化动力包括:自然选择基因漂变突变以及迁移。它也研究种群的分类,以及种群的空间结构。同样的,它也是试图解释诸如适应物种形成现象的理论。该学科的创始人是舍沃·怀特、J. B. S. Haldane和Ronald Fisher,他们也曾经为定量遗传学(quantitative genetics)的相关理论建立基础。它是遗传学的分支学科。 请参看:
- 微观进化
- 分子进化
- 选择
- 哈代-温伯格定律

参考书目


- John Gillespie Population Genetics: A Concise Guide, Johns Hopkins Press, 1998 ISBN 0-8018-5755-4
- Daniel Hartl Primer of Population Genetics, 3rd edition, Sinauer, 2000 ISBN 0878933042
- Daniel Hartl and Andrew Clark Principles of Population Genetics, 3rd edition, Sinauer 1997 ISBN 0-87893-306-9 Category:遗传学 ja:集団遺伝学

1990年代

大事記

科學和技術


- 網際網路迅速普遍化。
- 1996年——世界首隻複製羊桃莉誕生。
- 1999年——蓝牙技術問世。

戰爭與政治


- 1990年——德國統一。
- 1991年——波斯灣戰爭爆發。
- 1991年——華沙條約組織解散。
- 1991年——蘇聯解體,冷戰結束。
- 1993年——捷克斯洛伐克分裂為兩個獨立國家。
- 1994年——車臣戰爭爆發。
- 1996年——第三次台灣海峽危機
- 1997年——英國香港主權交給中華人民共和國
- 1999年——科索伏戰爭
- 1999年——葡萄牙澳門主權交給中華人民共和國。
- 1999年——美國巴拿馬運河區主權交還巴拿馬

經濟


- 1992年——歐洲聯盟成立。
- 1994年——北美自由貿易協議生效。
- 1995年——世界貿易組織成立。
- 1997年~1998年——亞洲金融風暴

文化及娛樂

天災人禍


- 1991年——菲律賓品納吐波火山爆發。
- 1993年——美國世界貿易中心爆炸案。
- 1994年——盧安達種族淨化大屠殺。
- 1995年——日本阪神大地震
- 1995年——美國奧克拉荷馬州聯邦大樓爆炸案。
- 1995年——南韓三豐百貨大樓倒塌事故
- 1996年——沙烏地阿拉伯航空班機與哈薩克航空班機在新德里空中相撞。
- 1997年——東南亞霾害
- 1998年——印尼排華暴動。
- 1998年——中國大洪水
- 1998年——美國肯亞坦尚尼亞大使館爆炸案
- 1998年——中美洲風災。
- 1999年——土耳其大地震。
- 1999年——台灣九二一大地震

名人

世界領導者


- 美洲
  - 喬治·H·W·布希美國
  - 比爾·柯林頓美國
  - 卡斯楚古巴
- 歐洲
  - 約翰·梅傑英國
  - 托尼·布萊爾英國
  - 雅克·希拉克法國
  - 赫爾穆特·科爾德國
  - 格哈特·施羅德德國
  - 米洛塞維奇南斯拉夫
- 亞洲大洋洲
  - 宮澤喜一日本
  - 橋本龍太郎日本
  - 李登輝中華民國台灣
  - 江澤民中華人民共和國
  - 金泳三南韓
  - 金大中南韓
  - 金正日北韓
  - 羅慕斯菲律賓
  - 艾斯特拉達菲律賓
  - 吳作棟新加坡
  - 蘇哈托印尼
  - 瓦傑帕伊印度
  - 約翰·霍華德澳洲
- 中東
  - 海珊伊拉克
  - 阿拉法特巴勒斯坦
  - 拉賓以色列
  - 內唐亞胡以色列
  - 穆巴拉克埃及
- 俄國
  - 葉爾欽
- 非洲
  - 戴克拉克南非
  - 曼德拉南非
  - 格達費利比亞

科學家

運動員

演藝人員

出生

逝世

Category:20世纪 ja:1990年代 ko:1990년대 simple:1990s zh-min-nan:1990 nî-tāi

家族

家族指基于血缘婚姻构成的利益集团,通常表现为以一个家庭为主构成的中心,如日本华人社会的财团,多以一个家庭为背景形成的企业集团。汉语“家族”小范围内有时和宗族混淆使用,但其家族特征表现为同一“姓氏”,以一个家庭为中心,中心家庭为家族共同祖先或家族中心人物。 category:家庭 category:家世與傳承 ja:家族

古埃及

古埃及是指从公元前4000多年开始直到公元前332年亚历山大大帝征服而结束,位于尼罗河流域的埃及文明。作为一个基于灌溉的文明,它是水力帝国的经典范例。

概述

水力帝国 在古埃及南北分治期间的疆域最大,南部尼罗河河谷地带的上埃及的領域有現在的蘇丹埃塞俄比亞,而北部三角洲地区的下埃及除了現在的埃及和部份阿爾及利亞以外,其東部邊界越過西奈半島直達迦南平原。但由於鄰近地區的民族不斷壯大,使古埃及的版圖不斷縮少。及至埃及艳后自殺之後,原來神廟的官員把埃及語變成用希臘字母書成的科普特文明繼續流傳下去,直到近代的17世紀歐洲開始進侵非洲時,為傳教士所焚毀。 古埃及的居民是由北非的土著居民和来自西亚塞姆人融合形成的。公元前4000年后半期,逐渐形成了国家,至亚历山大大帝征服埃及为止,共经历了前王朝早王朝古王国第一中间期中王国第二中间期新王国后王朝8个时期31个王朝的统治。(参看埃及王朝

古埃及历史

古埃及最早形成的国家叫做诺姆,也叫州,是一种城邦式的国家。公元前3000年左右,传说美尼斯统一上、下埃及,建立第一王朝,定都孟斐斯(今开罗西郊)。发展农业,开发水利。 古埃及真正的统一是在古王国时代。这是古埃及史上农业手工业商业建筑业等各项事业全面发展的第一个伟大时代。确立了以官僚体制为基础的、君主独裁的专制统治,并且出现了金字塔第六王朝以后,王权衰落,国家分裂,一直到十一王朝才重新统一。十二王朝时迁都底比斯(今埃及卢克索),开始使用青铜器。与叙利亚克里特的交往扩大。十三王朝时政权又瓦解,喜克索人占领了埃及北部的大部分地区,建立了长达100多年的“太阳神不在的统治”。第十七王朝阿赫摩斯一世最后驱逐喜克索人,重新统一埃及,开始了第十八王朝。 第十八王朝国力强盛,对外频繁发动战争。十九王朝时与赫梯帝国发生了卡迭石战役,经过16年之久的战争,最后以拉美西斯二世与赫梯王哈图西利斯签订和约告终。此时的埃及成为了一个大帝国,统治范围北起叙利亚,南到尼罗河第四瀑布,横跨北非西亚。 到第二十王朝以后,一系列的奴隶起义导致国力衰竭。最终在前525年波斯帝国所灭。前332年又被亚历山大大帝所统治,亚历山大死后,其部将托勒密占领了埃及,建立了托勒密王朝,成为埃及法老

古埃及的文化

法老圣书体和世俗体以及古希腊文,成为后人解读古埃及象形文字的关键]] 古埃及的文化非常丰富。创造的象形文字对后来腓尼基字母的影响很大,而希腊字母是在腓尼基字母的基础上创建的。此外,金字塔亚历山大灯塔阿蒙神庙等建筑体现了埃及人高超的建筑技术和数学知识,在几何学历法等方面也有很大的成就。

相关链接


- 象形文字
- 埃及神话
- 埃及神话人物列表
- 法老
- 埃及历史
- 古埃及历法
- 古埃及历史年表 Category:文明 Category:埃及 ja:古代エジプト

罗马

請選擇:
- 羅馬市(意大利首都)
- 古罗马 -古代罗马
- 罗马王政时代 - 古代罗马的王政时代
- 羅馬共和國 - 古代罗马的共和国时代
- 羅馬帝國 - 古代罗马的帝国时代和西罗马帝国
- 拜占庭帝國 - 东罗马帝国
- 神聖羅馬帝國
- 意甲球隊羅馬足球會

参见


- 欧洲史意大利史

罗马

請選擇:
- 羅馬市(意大利首都)
- 古罗马 -古代罗马
- 罗马王政时代 - 古代罗马的王政时代
- 羅馬共和國 - 古代罗马的共和国时代
- 羅馬帝國 - 古代罗马的帝国时代和西罗马帝国
- 拜占庭帝國 - 东罗马帝国
- 神聖羅馬帝國
- 意甲球隊羅馬足球會

参见


- 欧洲史意大利史

山海经

《山海经》是中国古籍。一般认为主要记述的是古代神话地理物产神话巫术宗教古史医药民俗民族等方面的内容。有些学者则认为《山海经》不单是神话,而且是远古地理,包括了一些海外的山川鸟兽。 《山海经》一书的作者和成书时间都还未确定。过去认为为大禹伯益所作。现代中国学者一般认为《山海经》成书非一时,作者亦非一人,时间大约是从战国初年到汉代初年巴蜀,东及齐地方的人所作,到西汉校书时才合编在一起。其中许多可能来自口头传说。 《山海经》现在最早的版本是经西汉刘向刘歆父子校刊而成。晋朝郭璞曾为《山海经》作注,考证注释者还有清朝毕沅的《山海经新校正》和郝懿行《山海经笺疏》等。 《山海经》全书十八卷,其中“山经”五卷,“海经”八卷,“大荒经”四卷,“海内经”一卷,共约31000字。记载了100多邦国,550山,300水道以及邦国山水的地理、风土物产等讯息。 古代中国神话的基本来源就是《山海经》,其中最著名的包括:夸父追日女娲补天羿射九日、黄帝大战蚩尤共工怒触不周山从而引发大洪水(参见诺亚方舟)、息壤治水成功、天帝取回息壤杀死鲧以及最後大治水成功的故事。 除此之外,《山海经》还以流水帐方式记载了一些奇怪的事件,对这些事件至今仍然存在较大的争论。 该书按照地区不按时间把这些事物一一记录。所记事物大部分由南开始,然后向西,在向北,最後到达大陆(九州)中部。九州四围被东海、西海、南海、北海所包围。 古代中国也一直把《山海经》作历史看待,是中国各代史家的必备参考书,由于该书成书年代久远,连司马迁写《史记》时也认为:“至《禹本纪》,《山海经》所有怪物,余不敢言之也。” 鲁迅还专门写有一篇《阿长与〈山海经〉》,记叙了家中仆人长妈妈为他买来一本《山海经》,给他带来的那份惊喜,还两次特别提到"九头的蛇"。

全文

《山海经》18卷分别如下: 山经 第一卷 南山经 第二卷 西山经 第三卷 北山经 第四卷 东山经 第五卷 中山经 海经 第一卷 海外南经 第二卷 海外西经 第三卷 海外北经 第四卷 海外东经 第五卷 海内南经 第六卷 海内西经 第七卷 海内北经 第八卷 海内东经 第九卷 大荒东经 第十卷 大荒南经 第十一卷 大荒西经 第十二卷 大荒北经 第十三卷 海内经

山海经古图

古山海经有图,陶渊明 有“观山海经图”诗句。但山海经古图已失。今山海经图绘于明清。

书目


- 山海经 ISBN 7-5402-1420-1
- 古本山海经图说 ISBN 7-80603-521-4

外文翻译本


- The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Penguin Classics, 2000, ISBN 0140447199 Category:中文古典典籍 ko:산해경

中世纪

中世纪(约395年1500年),是欧洲历史上的一个时代(主要是西欧),由西罗马帝国灭亡开始计算,直到文艺复兴之后,极权主义抬头的时期为止。“中世纪”一词是从15世纪后期的人文主义者开始使用的。这个时期的欧洲没有一个强有力的政权来统治。封建割据带来频繁的战争,造成科技和生产力发展停滞,人民生活在毫无希望的痛苦中,所以中世纪或者中世纪的早期在欧美普遍称作“黑暗时代”,传统上认为这是欧洲文明史上发展比较缓慢的时期。 另外一种观点认为:一直到公元九世纪,绝大多数的近古(Late Antiquity)学者都按照圣奥古斯丁的观点,认为人类是处于历史的第六个阶段也是最后一个阶段,即《圣经》在“启示录”里预言的“末日”,故而有黑暗之意;一个被历史学家普遍接受的说法是,“中世纪黑暗时代”这个词,是由十四世意大利文艺复兴人文主义学者彼特拉克所发明的。他周游欧洲重新发掘和出版经典的拉丁和希腊著作,志在重新恢复源本罗马古典的拉丁语言,艺术和文化,对自公元四一零年罗马沦陷以来的变化与所发生的,认为不值得研究。人文主义者看历史并不按奥古斯丁的宗教术语,而是按社会(学)的术语,即通过古典文化,文学和艺术来看待历史;所以人文主义者把这九百年古典文化上发展的停滞时期称为“黑暗的时期”。 彼特拉克欧洲历史分为两个阶段:一是古罗马古希腊时期;二是“黑暗时期”。人文主义者们也相信,总有一天罗马帝国会再次兴起,重新恢复古典文化的纯洁性。十四世纪末与十五世纪初,人文主义者们认为一个现代时期(Modern Age)已经开始了,所以从逻辑上来讲,一个“中世纪”已经形成了。 因此,自起人文主义者起,历史学家们对“黑暗的时期”和“中世纪”也多持负面观点。在十六与十七世纪基督教新教徒的宗教改革中,新教徒们也把天主教的腐败写进这段历史中。针对新教徒的指责,天主教的改革者们也给出了一幅与“黑暗的时期”相反的图画:一个社会与宗教和谐的时期,一点也不黑暗。而对“黑暗时期”许多现代的负面观念是来自于,十七与十八世纪启蒙运动中的康德伏尔泰的作品中。 十九世纪初, 浪漫主义运动转变了这种对“黑暗的时期”负面一边倒的趋势。它给出了一幅祥和的图画:社会和环境的和谐,扎根于大自然的生活;同时也回应启蒙运动中的理性主义以理性完全超越感性的作法,以及由正在兴起的工业革命所带来的环境破坏与污染。浪漫主义者对待“黑暗时期”的观点,仍可以在今天的一些庆祝那个时期文化活动与节日中,通过所展示出来的风俗与发生的历史事件中看到。 浪漫主义运动后的十九世纪下半个世纪,考古学取的了很大的进展,许多不为以前的学者所知的历史文献与文物被挖掘和整理出来。而1939年发现的公元六二五年代的萨顿骺(Sutton Hoo)宝窟,以及中世纪研究的著名学者查理哈斯金(Charles H. Haskins)的研究发现,使得“黑暗时期”看上去不再是一个合适的词汇。二战以后,在英语国家中的专业学者文献里,“黑暗时期”这个词渐渐地消失。 查理哈斯金写道:“历史的连续性排除了中世纪文艺复兴这两个紧接着的历史时期之间有巨大差别的可能性,现代研究表明,中世纪不是曾经被认为的那么黑,也不是那么停滞;文艺复兴不是那么亮丽,也不是那么突然。意大利文艺复兴运动之前,有一个类似的运动,即便它不是那么广传。 所以,原来的“中世纪黑暗时期”现被改为专指公元四一零年(或四五五年)到公元七五四(或八零零年)这段欧洲历史。

历史

文艺复兴] 随着西罗马帝国被日耳曼人所灭,相继出现了一批蛮族国家。先后有法兰克伦巴德奥多亚克勃艮第汪达尔-阿兰东哥特西哥特盎格鲁·萨可逊等王国建立。王国之间战争不断,其中盎格鲁·萨可逊、法兰克王国存在的时间比较长。 作为日耳曼人一支的法兰克人,在486年打败高卢军队,由克洛维建立起墨洛温王朝的统治。克洛维通过和罗马教廷的联合,占领了罗马帝国在高卢的全部领土。随着法兰克王国不断的扩张,到了6世纪中叶,征服了勃艮第、图林根巴伐利亚萨可逊的一些部落,成为当时西欧最强大的国家,并建立了封建采邑制751年,宫相矮子丕平成为法兰克国王,建立了加洛林王朝。在查理大帝统治期间国力达到最盛,吞并了伦巴德王国,夺取西班牙边区,占领东巴伐利亚,征服阿瓦尔汗国,西欧的大部分土地都成为了法兰克王国的领土。查理大帝死后,法兰克王国发生兄弟战争而分裂,在843年8月签订《凡尔登条约》经国家分为西法兰克王国东法兰克王国意大利王国,现代的法国德国意大利的疆域就是以这个条约为基础的。 日耳曼人的另外一支盎格鲁人萨克逊人朱特人5世纪中叶进入大不列颠群岛,在6世纪末,7世纪初,形成了7个王国,英国历史上称为七国时代829年威塞克斯王国吞并了其他6个王国,从此诞生了英格兰(England)。1066年,法国诺曼底公爵威廉以亲属关系要求继承王位,遭到拒绝后,以武力夺取了英王之位,称为“征服者威廉”(即威廉一世),建立了诺曼底王朝,但是这也造成了日后百年战争的根源。在亨利一世1100年 - 1135年)统治时期,随着王权的加强,社会矛盾激化。1215年约翰(无地王)被迫签署《自由大宪章》。1264年的内战期间,亨利三世西门·德·孟福尔俘虏。1265年孟福尔召集国会,成为英国议会的开端。从1343年起,国会分成了由贵族组成的上院和代表